Introduction: What Happened After Wounded Knee
Wounded Knee, the site of the infamous 1890 massacre of Lakota Sioux by U.S. troops, remains a pivotal event in Native American history. While the actual massacre marked the violent suppression of Native resistance and cultural practices, its aftermath shaped the trajectory of Native activism, government policies, and cultural revival for decades to come. This article explores the significant developments following the Wounded Knee incident, including the decline of Native resistance, shifts in U.S. government policies, the rise of Native activism, and ongoing efforts to preserve and revitalize Native cultures and rights.
The Immediate Aftermath of Wounded Knee
End of the Ghost Dance Movement
The Wounded Knee Massacre was closely associated with the Ghost Dance movement, a spiritual revival that sought to restore Native lands and way of life. The U.S. government viewed the movement as a threat and responded with increased military intervention. After the massacre, the Ghost Dance rapidly declined, as fear and repression suppressed its practice.
- Many Ghost Dance leaders were arrested or killed.
- The movement's momentum was broken, but its spiritual significance persisted among Native communities.
- Symbolically, Wounded Knee marked the end of large-scale Native resistance to U.S. expansion.
Government Policies and Suppression
Following the massacre, the U.S. government intensified policies aimed at assimilating Native Americans into mainstream American society. These policies included:
- Closing of Native American lands to traditional practices.
- Suppression of Native languages, religions, and cultural expressions.
- Implementation of boarding school programs designed to erase Native identities.
These measures aimed to eradicate Native cultural practices and assimilate Native populations, with mixed long-term effects on Native communities.
Resurgence and Native Activism (1930s–1960s)
The Indian Reorganization Act of 1934
The Indian Reorganization Act (IRA), also known as the Wheeler-Howard Act, marked a shift in federal policy towards Native Americans. It aimed to reverse some assimilationist policies by promoting Native self-governance and cultural preservation.
- Restored tribal lands and recognized tribal governments.
- Encouraged Native cultural practices and traditions.
- Provided funding for Native education and economic development.
While the IRA was not universally embraced, it laid the groundwork for future Native activism and self-determination efforts.
Emergence of Native Rights Movements
From the 1950s onward, Native Americans began organizing more actively to challenge federal policies and fight for their rights. Key developments included:
- Formation of Native advocacy groups such as the National Congress of American Indians (NCAI) in 1944.
- Increasing awareness of treaty rights, land claims, and cultural preservation.
- Protests against termination policies that sought to dissolve tribes and assimilate Native peoples into mainstream society.
The 1960s and 1970s: The Rise of Native Activism
The Red Power Movement
The 1960s and 1970s witnessed a dramatic rise in Native activism, often associated with the broader Civil Rights Movement. The Red Power movement emerged, emphasizing tribal sovereignty, cultural pride, and land rights.
- Organized protests, marches, and occupations of government buildings and land.
- Formation of groups like the American Indian Movement (AIM) in 1968.
- Advocacy for the return of ancestral lands and recognition of treaty rights.
The American Indian Movement (AIM)
AIM became a leading organization in advocating for Native rights. Notable actions included:
- The 1972 Trail of Broken Treaties protest in Washington, D.C.
- The 1973 occupation of Wounded Knee, South Dakota, which became a symbol of Native resistance.
The Wounded Knee occupation was a pivotal event that drew national attention to Native issues and called for government accountability and respect for treaty rights.
The 1973 Wounded Knee Occupation
Background and Causes
The 1973 occupation was triggered by longstanding grievances, including broken treaties, poor living conditions, and oppression of Native communities. AIM led a group of activists to the town of Wounded Knee to protest government neglect and to demand reforms.
The Occupation and Its Significance
The occupation lasted for 71 days, bringing national media attention and highlighting issues such as:
- Land rights and treaty violations.
- Government corruption and neglect.
- Native sovereignty and self-determination.
Though the occupation ended in violence and arrests, it galvanized Native activism and led to increased awareness and policy changes at federal levels.
Legal and Policy Changes Post-1970s
Legal Victories and Legislative Acts
Following the activism of the 1970s, several legislative measures advanced Native rights:
- The Indian Self-Determination and Education Assistance Act (1975): Allowed tribes greater control over their own programs and services.
- The American Indian Religious Freedom Act (1978): Aimed to protect Native religious practices and sites.
- The Native American Graves Protection and Repatriation Act (1990): Provided for the return of Native remains and cultural artifacts.
Recognition of Tribal Sovereignty
Federal courts and legislation increasingly recognized the sovereignty of Native tribes, affirming their rights to govern themselves, manage lands, and preserve cultural practices. This shift marked a significant departure from earlier assimilation policies.
Cultural Revitalization and Preservation
Language and Cultural Programs
Efforts to revive and sustain Native languages and cultural traditions gained momentum. Examples include:
- Language immersion schools and classes.
- Cultural festivals and ceremonies.
- Documentation and archiving of oral histories and traditions.
Native Arts and Identity
Native artists, musicians, and writers have played a vital role in cultural revitalization, asserting Indigenous identities and sharing their stories globally. This cultural renaissance has strengthened community pride and international awareness.
Contemporary Challenges and Movements
Ongoing Land and Treaty Disputes
Many Native communities continue to face disputes over land rights, resource extraction, and environmental protection. Notable issues include:
- Disputes over pipelines and natural resource development.
- Protection of sacred sites from development and exploitation.
- Land reclamation and treaty enforcement efforts.
Environmental Justice and Sovereignty
Environmental issues have become central to Native activism, emphasizing the protection of land and water resources as part of sovereignty and cultural survival. Movements address concerns such as pollution, climate change, and resource extraction impacting Indigenous territories.
Legal and Political Advocacy
Native nations continue to pursue legal avenues to assert rights, including:
- Land claims and sovereignty lawsuits.
- Advocacy for inclusion in national policymaking.
- International efforts through organizations like the United Nations to recognize Indigenous rights.
Conclusion: The Continuing Journey
The history after Wounded Knee reflects a complex interplay of suppression, resilience, activism, and cultural revival. While the massacre marked a tragic chapter in Native American history, it also served as a catalyst for subsequent generations to demand justice, sovereignty, and recognition. Today, Native communities continue to navigate challenges and advocate for their rights, preserving their rich cultural heritage and asserting their place within the broader American society. The legacy of Wounded Knee remains a powerful symbol of resistance and the ongoing struggle for Indigenous dignity and self-determination.
Frequently Asked Questions
What were the immediate consequences for the Lakota after the Wounded Knee Massacre?
The immediate consequences included increased grief and outrage among the Lakota, a decline in Native American resistance, and heightened federal control over Native communities, leading to a period of repression and suppression of cultural practices.
How did the Wounded Knee Massacre influence Native American activism in the following decades?
The massacre became a symbol of Native American suffering and injustice, inspiring future activism such as the American Indian Movement (AIM) and protests like the 1973 Wounded Knee Incident, which aimed to address ongoing Native issues.
What was the federal government’s response in the years after Wounded Knee concerning Native rights?
Initially, there was increased federal oversight and efforts to assimilate Native populations, but over time, advocacy and legal challenges led to some recognition of Native sovereignty and the return of certain lands.
Did the Wounded Knee event lead to any significant legal or policy changes for Native Americans?
While it did not immediately result in major legal reforms, the event heightened awareness and contributed to later policy changes, including the Indian Self-Determination and Education Assistance Act of 1975, which promoted Native self-governance.
How is the Wounded Knee Massacre remembered and commemorated today?
It is remembered as a tragic symbol of Native suffering and resistance, commemorated through memorials, annual events, and educational programs that highlight Native history and ongoing struggles for rights and recognition.
